What is the sand and it`s characteristics ?

What is the sand and it`s  characteristics ?

Sand random accumulation of small pieces of rock, with dimensions seeds ranged between 0.063 and 2 mm on a scale Wentworth. Sand divided by its inception, into three main groups:

Sand continental erogenous sands: produces from previous weathering of rocks and fragmented configuration where the bulk animated cajoling and transferred to the sedimentation basins.

Carbonate sand: a marine origin and author of Krboonatih particles formed within the sedimentation basin (Sriat, fossils structures, gestures Krboonati) which is not in ruins to Michcla from breaking rocks previous configuration.

Detrital sand firearms pyroclastic sands: produced from volcanic eruptions, which is rich in volcanic debris in the form of real detritus bullet or continental if brought out of the land of ancient volcanic.

The most crucial of these sands, in terms of the diversity and proliferation, continental sand, and operates approximately 30% of the sedimentary cover in the earth's crust and are deposited at different rates, in all depositional environments, so the next study will focus on them.

General characteristics

Fall quartz sand within sand continental group and constitute the bulk of them. And characterized fabric texture and structure structure different sets general characteristics, namely in terms of the strength of two types: sand; It rocks disjointed uncorrelated, consists of beads clastic not combined with material carnivorous, and sandstones; It rocks interdependent and consists of beads clastic collected material for carnivorous.

 Metallic composition and chemical: quartz sand consists mainly of metal quartz (quartz), followed in importance metals sheets (feldspar), then metals mica Algdharyh, in addition to other miscellaneous metals incidental. The proportions of these components vary from sand to another depending on several factors, most important rocks mothers. Thus characterized by sand and quartz sandstone of chemically control silica SiO2 and alumina Al2O3 and iron oxides Fe2O3.FeO.

Colors: characterized by sand and quartz sandstones generally light colors white, and are rarely grim result presence of metal Amonettit or organic materials, and the structure or red when an iron mortar. The sandstones Elsafahih are pink or red, while colored sandstone Algluckonettih colors green variety.

Grain characteristics: characterized by quartz sand with a grain of properties, vary according to the nature of the source rocks, and factors physical or chemical weathering, and transport Alriha or water, continental or marine sedimentation.

- Measurement berries: quartz sand is located, according to international classifications applicable, within Aleranat family crinite, as dimensions of the quartz grains vary between 0.63 and 2 mm. And divide the sand and quartz sandstones, depending on the dimensions, into five groups grain (Figure 1). And loving dimension has been set for the Sand Molder using a sieve placed over each other, scalable openings of 2 mm and below, or through the study of microscopic slides for cohesive sandy rocks.

- Forms of pills: take quartz beads different forms, is determined by the degree of sphericity and beads balled Tdorha roundness, where cross-balling for approaching the pill degree of spherical shape depending on the ratio between the three main axes of the bead. There spherical and cylindrical beads and paper and blade and Gudaibiya, but Altdor thus expressed the curvature of the corners of the pill. According scale Altdor adopted globally beads are divided into very Mzoah beads, Mzoah, under Mzoah, under round, round, very round 

Quartz grains also feature smooth surfaces or rough unmarked different lines and scratches and pits and terrain. These surfaces may be opaque or opaque luster shiny brilliant luster. And reflect the detailed study of the surface texture of the beads using a scanning electron microscope of this berry and its history.

- Classification loving sorting: It means the control of one measure of my love. Show gatherings sandy different degrees of classification loving as can be poor, medium or good rating (Figure 3), and identifies these factors overlap transport and deposition. General and the sand is formed in the troubled areas good corrosion and loving balling and classification, while the sand is the worst in terms of river wear and classification as a result of different speeds of the water stream. Worse sand river sand Saliyah, then come sands Heels hillsides. The deep-sea sand degree of erosion and the balled عاليين and degree rated medium.

Geographical distribution of sand and quartz sandstones

Formed sand and sandstone in different circumstances and by very different factors. And deposited in the depositional environments of all: continental, marine and mixed specifications reflect the characteristics of these environments.

In continental environments spread quartz sand widely in the form of deposits desert, river and lake ice.

The sediment the flat plains of the desert sands area of ​​up to 7,500 square kilometers (Selima in the Libyan desert sand) is composed of a few feet thick caps resting on rock the cradle, or in the form of deposits undulating (neem marks) resembles its appearance whales. But the most important forms of Todatha are sand dunes and desert dunes beach when the banks aquariums, which tees asymmetrical and with peaks sharp forms crescent (Brkhanat) or Sevah or asterisk or straight, are deposited sand quartz where the form of intersecting layers cross bedding ranged thickness between a few meters and tens of meters, and up to 300 m, as is the case in Iran.

The sediment lacustris are limited deployment and minimal thickness, and structure of marine sandstones, and usually contains impurities Clay and wrecks Msthathih.

The river sediment corrosion and balling and classification, oblique stratification, and are deposited in the form of belts towards the stream and river valleys or when cornering river.

And glacial sediment formed as a result of erosion depositions Almourih obsolete water melting glaciers, and is characterized by good Bastafa love and wear-rate, medium-and apply cross Sealy or rivers.

In mixed environments (beach) are quartz sand in the form of bars or linear ranges blankets extended parallel to the shore line at distances up to 40 km long and 4 km wide, while not exceeding 20 m thick, and you know sand beaches or 'beaches'. Also located near the beaches of the sediment problem ductal channels and marine barriers barriers length up to several hundred meters, and a width of up to several tens of meters, and at an altitude of more than ten meters. There are also the form interfaces lenses within sediments very soft Algdharyh.

In marine environments sand Vttoda in areas facets marine platforms in the form of barriers barres or submerged underwater dunes forms elliptical intermittent. While there are in the deeper areas of the sea in the form of large deposits and homogeneous cover dozens or hundreds of square kilometers represented deposits turbidity currents and deep-sea sand deep see fan deposited in layers with grain scalable characteristics.

Naming and classification of quartz sand

Quartz sand and are classified according to several foundations and in different ways. And summed up most of quartz sand in the categories used equilateral triangle approach, which uses components main sand: Quartz - sheets - clay or rocky contents (Figure 4). This is based classification use a maturity maturity chemist and physicist, where he describes maturity chemical degree fastness metals towards factors weathering and transport, while describing maturity physicist histological changes undergone by sand from the weathering until sedimentation, especially the degree of sorting loving and content of sand from sediment minute ( Ground matrix). And the general outcome of the chemical and physical maturity increases in the direction of the top of the triangle representing the fixed or quartz grains (Figure 5). Applying this approach can be classified quartz sand and stones into two basic types: Aleranat and Allowaki.

Use system equilateral triangle in clarifying how to infer the maturation of sand

Through its components.

Be physically mature sand based on the proportion of its contents from terrestrial sediments, and mature chemically

Based on the contents of the metals is fixed.

Division of sand and quartz sand based on the use of clay indication of the maturation of tissue and the sheets as a parameter for maturation of chemical

Containing stones Aleranat less than 15% of terrestrial sediments (clays), while containing stones Allowaki between 15-75% of this sludge. Thus can be divided customary quartz sand into three main groups based on the degree of maturity chemist and physicist, namely:

- Quartzite stones: and includes both sand pure Alkuartza and sand Alkuartza initial orthoquartizite + protoquartizite rich Balmarw or rigid quartz or disjointed, a mature tissue and chemically referred to Quartz Beranat, and formed in shallow marine environments.

- Alerkoz stones: It is made up of quartz and sheets, and mature physically and chemically immature and are found in fluvial facies neighboring layers of granite and marine basins fixed or disruptive.

Allowaki stones: and includes both Allowaki gray greywacke and quartz Oaqui quartzwacke.

Petrophysical characteristics of the sand and quartz sandstones

Enjoy pure quartz sand porosity initial porosity between high grain (Figure 6) ranged between 10% and 35%, and up to 45% in the loose sand. Quartz sand is classified depending on the porosity of the poor and weak, medium and good and high porosity. And take the spaces between the grains sizes and different forms depending on the formal qualities of the surrounding beads. As these initial porosity closely associated with fabric and style packaging packing berries, where landing porosity value of 48% in Almkobei system, which is the most fragmented, to 26% in rhomboid packaging system, which is the most cohesion. And affect the merger (Clinch) during and after deposition in the original porosity. So the porous clay be very high and during the time of deposition (85%), and decreases after the burial of this sludge because of the merger.

Produces porosity in quartz sand private permeability permeability that reflect the ability of the fluid to move into the middle and through porous channels and corridors with sinuous shapes and different sections. Sands are classified according to the values ​​permeability to weak, medium and good and high permeability. The suit permeability is proportional to the size of the grains vary the medium-sized box of pills and inversely proportional to the logarithm of coefficient rating loving. Permeability is also affected grains and packaged forms.

The economic importance of sand and quartz sandstones

Important Alkhoznip: lend porosity and permeability Graham Walter on the sand and quartz sandstones good Khoznah properties make it an important oil tanks allow the accumulation of hydrocarbons and positioned to contain a huge stockpile of crude oil and natural gas. If what Asttnint fields massive carbonate in the world, the sand and sandstones contain two-thirds of the world's oil reserves and natural gas. Not only is this important sand to contain a high stock of oil, but it also brings to the ease of detection compared with carbonate formations. The compounds of these silicate rocks are not affected by incidents physical and chemical transformation that lead to loss of porosity in carbonate rocks.

Sand reservoirs are classified according to the depositional environments in which they occur according to different groups, each with its own characteristics depositional and engineering, petrophysical and petroleum. These gatherings are important oil traps, especially in the fields of the North Sea and the Arab region.

In case it does not contain hydrocarbons reservoirs, or depletion of their content, it can be invested in underground storage operations for natural gas newly popular in the world. Is also a sand and sandstone important source of groundwater.

Industrial uses: quartz sand fall within the list of useful raw materials used in many industries. They constitute the main raw material used in the manufacture of glass. As intervention in different proportions in the manufacture of cement, ceramics and building materials, in addition to its use in polishing and grinding and water purification. Quartz sand are also used asphalt to get asphalt for paving roads

The Sedimentary rocks

The Sedimentary rocks

Arise sedimentary rocks of the deposition material comminuted or dissolved in water and that results from exposure different rock igneous rocks, sedimentary or metamorphic to activity mechanic where lead to fragmentation Mechanical of rocks due to factors weathering winds, rain and sea waves and others. Different sedimentary rocks for firearms and metamorphic in it with different origins and the origins while metamorphic and igneous origin and the origin of one. The chemical weathering, they lead to the chemical decomposition of most rock-forming minerals,

Then current transport factors such as water, wind, ice, metal transfer decaying solid crumbs components or dissolved. It starts deposition solids when weakens the flow of water or air carrier has, the solutes after the water evaporates the solvent her and spoke sedimentation process in many places of the most important deserts and mountain slopes and in floodplains around rivers and seas, oceans and lakes where consists sediment saline and then consolidated sediments dismantled to be sedimentary rocks and process occurs cohesion either depositing materials carnivorous between granules coarser sediments like pebbles and sand (materials Allajmh common, such as iron oxide and silica and calcium carbonate) or consolidating sediments by pressure sediment Supreme what is underneath the sediments where they are out of water located between the granules sediment Vtaatsalb and be sedimentary rocks.

Associated operations Alarsabih lime and chalk article within the sedimentary rock formation largely exist in nature forms convergent and consistent

There are several colors of these rocks by the main article and the colors that exist red, yellow, and white.

Everything about the Rocks

Everything about the Rocks

Rocks gathered natural crystalline metals. However, they also contain varying amounts of material is elaborated, in addition to some organic products. The vast majority of the rocks solids, but some are loose, or DNA Kalgdharyat, and some other liquid such as oil, or even an invader. Most rocks are comprised of a variety of metals, but sometimes consist of gathering grains of one nature. The study is called rock Alpetrogravea petrography, a branch of geology [t] key.

Rock types

Distributed rocks, depending on their origin, in three categories:

1 rocks impulsivity that result from the crystallization of magma (magma).

2 sedimentary rocks formed in aqueous media Kalphar and lakes, and produces erosion and corruption oldest rocks.

3 metamorphic rocks and produce from turning ancient rocks (impulsive or sedimentary) under the influence of a significant rise in temperature and / or pressure, without leading to a total fusion of the original material.

The fall impulsivity and metamorphic rocks under the name of rock endogenous (formed in the rear), unlike sedimentary rocks which are called exogenous because they are formed on the surface of the ground or close to the surface.

Sedimentary cover rocks approximately 75% of the surface of the continents. But if we take the depth of the earth's crust into account (from the surface to a depth of 30 or 40 km) are rocks impulsivity is predominant, and account for about 95% of the crust.

Rocks impulsivity:

Usually divided into two broad categories; underground rocks and volcanic rocks. Produces rock underground of the crystallization of magma in the rear, while bearing volcanic rocks to the surface through cracks crust, so Tnbard rocks esoteric slowly, and be a high degree of crystallization, and structured granular, where Vlzadtha visible with the naked eye, unlike the volcanic rocks that Tnbard on the surface, where they are when they arrive to him, to the irrigation incident (such as steel watering). And be very small Vlzadtha, any structure Mkrolitih.

And rocks impulsivity consist primarily of silicates or Alolominossellkat. Despite the presence of more than a thousand metal type, the metals that make up more than 99% of impulsivity rocks belong to a limited number of families metallic. And Metallurgy Home are: silica (especially in the form of quartz quartz), which represents 12% of the total rock impulsivity, and sheets feldspare and Plagioclase (59.5%) plagioclase and pyroxene pyroxene and amphibole (16.8%) amphibole, and Albiotit biotite or mica black (3.8%) and other metals Kalawlevin olivine, and صفاحية metals Kalnevelin neviline and apatite apatite ... and other (6.4%).

Origin of rocks impulsivity: can be likened Alsharrat which produces rock basin impulsivity of dissolved silica containing varying amounts of compressed gas (water vapor, carbon dioxide, etc.). There are two main types of Alsharrat differ from each other according to the origins and the degree primary Hrarthma and chemical Tercibama and Slukithma in the earth's crust;

Alsharrat basalt produces fusion of local bands located at the boundary between the earth's crust and coat (mantle) upper. It is believed that these bands are composed of boulders called Alberidotit.

Alsharrat granite and produced from the fusion of ancient metamorphic rock.

When magma crystallized metals appear according to a specific sequence. Vafilzac with the highest degree of crystallization is formed first, which contains the least amount of silica. In contrast with metals that formed later melting temperature weaker, which rich Balsiles.

Uses rocks impulsivity: rock impulsivity often used in the construction and public works. Add to that several reservoirs of useful materials associated rocks impulsivity. In fact often appear at the end of the magma crystallized metals hot water (Hedrutermalah) in the form of veins, and that is exactly the case of many of the mineral salts of amberjacks and uranium, and of exceptional Kalberaleom metals and diamonds.

Sedimentary rocks:

Produces erosion and corruption oldest rocks, and consists of a series of events, including:

Erosion and corruption: The main factor in the corruption is water. The result of this chemical reaction fragmentation (erosion) of the various elements consisting of rock and unfolding exhibition of corruption (or rock). And become part of these elements (most soluble) to a solution-phase immigrant, while other elements remain intact or merge with each other in the place (the remaining crust) form Gdharyat or water oxides and various oxides. The different stages can be distinguished by the degree of corruption. The erosion varies depending on the climate impact and the importance of the terrain and the structural stability of the region.

Transportation: may be soluble compounds, during the transfer process, to some changes. But the main verb is wear and solid breaks outputs. In general, all the major metals indivisible during transport. But quartz The very high hardness resists fragmentation. And well Algdharyat they float and move on the form of suspensions, not exposed to severe wear or bumped. When weaken current velocity is deposited part of the transferred material in the form of solutions.

Sedimentation: activates detrital material deposition on the edges of continents and continental surfaces, areas under freely to a maximum depth of 150 or 200 meters to forming the so-called detrital rocks. However, it can convey part of the detrital beads to deeper areas due to strong currents. As well as migrate softer beads slowly toward the open sea, and are in the narrow valleys (Gorges) Gdharyat enormous depths.

The chemical precipitation and biochemical Feinst on the edges of the continents, where many of the objects extracted calcium is necessary for building structures limestone (snails) of sea water. Upon the death of these objects and soft yard parts accumulate structures on the bottom.

The direct chemical precipitation is even rarer, form a salt, for example, requires special conditions such as sea water saturation. And explains placed marine sediments currents, where there are many organisms, the presence of these rocks in the form of successive layers, often container fossils.

Growing subsequent: when sludge modern positioning it would be in the form of solving almost saturated with water. And gathered all acts that lead to the transformation of this mud to homogeneous solid rock under the name (cement) or.

Detrital rocks are classified according to measure its composite elements, the rocks of chemical origin and biochemical are classified according to the nature of its main component.

Uses sedimentary rocks: there are a lot of useful material of sedimentary origin, as limestone are widely used in construction, and in the manufacture of plaster and cement. And invest Algdharyat in the brick industry (bricks), ceramic products and solid resistance. Rock salt is also used sodium and potassium salts in chemistry and agriculture. Be some sedimentary rocks combustible such as oil and natural gas.

Also invest economically from uranium sedimentary uranium deposits.

Metamorphic rocks

Produces metamorphic rocks of the oldest rocks shift can be impulsive (initial shift) or mutant (shift-). But usually a matter of sedimentary rocks (parallel shift). So often metamorphic rocks Mttbakh.

Conversion factors and consequences: There are two key factors temperature and pressure; deposition as it leads to the accumulation of several thousand meters of rock, would be subject levels that are deposited first to the very high pressures. However, it is often associated with high pressure movements of the earth's crust, and be the forces acting upon constitute a very high mountain ranges and high-impact, sediment which is subject to severe pressure.

Associated with high temperature depth, where the temperature rises at depth in the earth's crust at one degree Celsius every 30 meters. They can be less than that, according to regions. The origin of this heat back to the disintegration of radioactive elements in the rock (uranium, thorium, potassium), which is accompanied by the emission of heat.

And under the influence of pressure and heat liberated water molecules and hydroxyl radicals OH in metals and rocks, and play an important role in the chemical changes that occur during the transition. Water liberal and high temperature lead to a major adjustment in the metallic composition of the initial rock. Vlzat sedimentary rocks, Kalgdharyat, fixed chemically, become unstable when subjected to conditions shift, show a series of metals new called «metals transformation» (Grina, Onduluzit, Selemanat, Storoid ... etc.), and on the contrary remain other metals Kalmro and sheets fixed , but re-materialization often and increase its dimensions.

As a result happens to rock recrystallization and modify metallic varying intensity, so dependent nature of the metals formed on high heat and pressure, and on the impact and the initial installation of the rock. In contrast, the presence of some transition metals provides information on the pressures and temperatures that prevailed during the emergence of the rock. For example, it is possible to say that Cka becomes contains Alsellimanit that sillimanite before that was rich Balgdhar was formed at temperatures above 400 ° C and under pressure of 45 GPa.

The reaction pressure varies a bit, besides heat is easy to recrystallization and deformation in rocks. Vafilzac formed amorphous and in the center is subject to pressure from the private, go to these pressures. Thus reflected the impact in the form of pressure applied or foliate most metamorphic rocks and so-called rock crystal

The Definition of the mountain

The Definition of the mountain

The mountain is what higher of the Earth's surface and elongate higher exceeded the hill. And geographically is Relief more elevated than him and exceeded taller relative of 600 m, and there is a view say 300 m, and the peak area smaller than the area of ​​the base, and the bottom severe declines, Tkhadddh valleys and indivisible. And the mountain top of the hill, and the hill top of the hill, and the hill higher than the mound are the lowest ones. The so-called mountain Tala, hill and mountain has and Bedouin transcended.

Types of mountains

Mountains of the world are organized into three types: individual mountains and mountain ranges, and mountain belts.

Abound mountains individual in volcanic regions, and in the Bekaa exposed to erosion, and the mountain ranges are bars long stretch tens and hundreds of kilometers, while composed belts mountain chains connected and stretching thousands of kilometers, the largest belt alpine Alheimalaúa, belt Andean, belt chains Central Asia, The margins Pacific belt.

And tend to the mountains chains and belts distributed on the margins of the continents and their coastlines, in the Arab world is the most important mountains on the shores of the Mediterranean, such as the mountains of the Levant and the Atlas in the Maghreb and on both sides of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, then the Oman Mountains, and in the Australian stretch Australian Alps coasts East In America South West coasts, and in North America on the western and eastern coasts, and in Asia Minor on the southern and northern coasts. Not about the Alps and Alberanh in Europe from the seas a lot, but keep pace with the Italian Coast and the Balkans. And there is an important mountain ranges within continents especially in أوراسية like the Carpathian Mountains and the Urals and the Caucasus and Central Asia and the chains on the Tibetan Plateau and its extension to South East Asia, and in Africa there are mountain blocks in the heart of the desert, such as stone and Tibesti Mountains.

Progeny or genesis

Continents contain two types of structural units, the first block of ancient rocks, dating back to the pre-Cambrian, consisting of rocks Asthalah and wounds sometimes associated with sedimentary rocks, is the initial nucleus of the continents and continental shields known continental shields. It has been observed to contain armor continental structures lava Alosaúdah pillow lavas associated with the 'deposits' flint chemical origin, which indicates that the primary rocks of the continents formed from volcanic eruptions under the sea.

The second type, consists of sedimentary formations and volcanic wounds and, composed mostly rising mountain blocks surrounding continental shields, the more recent move away towards the sea.

Mountains vary in origin and the size and nature of the rock, and difficult to classify. And can, depending on its individual associated with the causes of evolution, be classified in three groups: the volcanic mountains volcanic mountains and mountains of the blocks Alsdeih fault block mountains (or mountains Alvagayh or refractive) and mountains torsional fold mountains (or folds mountain) (Figure -1). The mountains of folding the most important types of mountains and widespread, and arise from the longitudinal compression Belts and advancement, and had the advantage of structural bodies and joint appearances suggest that they may have passed in identical historical stages, and called mountain systems.

Theories are mountain systems

Acquired development systems mountains and formed the attention of scientists, and was the subject of many studies, which included several theories most important theories: the first is old, and assume the development of the mountains in the geological geosynclines accumulate sediments many, with a gradual decline in the bottom, followed by the subject to movements side pressure, They then assume a vertical movements (vertical) and the other side, in the earth's crust, the first gravitational cause land subsidence and second expansion joints stressful, causing disfigurement and advancement, and was first described Dana Dana world in 1813 in the course of his study of the Appalachian Mountains. This was consistent with the theory intellectual trend that is supposed to continents and oceans old and fixed bodies of the earth's crust.

The second theory is modern and comprehensive analytical, developed according to recent studies and data concepts of plate tectonics [t] that explain the historical stages of the evolution of continents and oceans. The rise systems mountain is closely linked to the movement of plates lithosphere, which is within the scope of margins collision, where landing these margins under a sheet of continents to Tngrz on the coat, and consists of landing ocean trenches that become an area of ​​sediment accumulation over the tapes longitudinal downside of the Earth's crust called belts kinetic mobile belts.

I suppose the existence of these belts during the studies conducted on the Appalachian Mountains, it has been observed that the thickness of Rsupacha Albalyozoah exceed 12,000 meters, was also noted that this fine, gradually decreasing thickness towards the west direction within the continent, and low limits of approximately ten. And evidence Almsthathih indicates that most of them were placed in shallow marine environments, reaching thickness limit far exceeds the greatest bathymetric, so I suppose a decline in these parts of the earth's crust during the sedimentary accumulation, and the greater the decline occurred more accumulation.

There are many places of the earth's crust suit accumulation sedimentary nowadays, and there are other places in the past the scene of the accumulation, including the continents, but is limited to the development of belts motor near the edges of the continental shelves edges of continental shelves or near parentheses islands island arcs (Figures 2 and 3). In such places, the continents and islands arches role of the main sources of supply belts Kinetic Balrsupac. As the motor belts in mountain systems are the longitudinal bars of sedimentary and volcanic rocks deformed, the location must be located in the ranges of lithosphere plates collided, between continents and oceans and along arcs of islands.

Examples include, mentions that the presentation of the continental shelf east of North America has about 320 kilometers, which is covered with deposits up thick at its edge foreign to 5000 meters (Figure -3) and return to Hakba Almizzouzoa and Elkinozoa, consisting of rocks and sandy Clay and Clay Cefhah and calcareous , or the equivalent of rigid Rsupac, which resemble a whole with Rsupac the inner part of the Appalachian belt, except they are free of sandstone wedges. The fine, deep accumulated over the ocean crust, they are soft Clay tinged with coarse material rolled off the continental shelf, and the superiority of thick in some locations thickness of sedimentary cover over the continental shelf.

Falling belts kinetic: reduces landing gradual belts kinetic thickness of large parts of the accumulation sedimentary thick, and is attributed to the fact that rocks continental crust density less than rock coat lining them, then it is floating above it, and must be part riser them be subject to erosion فتقل thick and tends to promotion, and in turn tends part carrier deposits increased in thickness to decline, according to the principle of balance buoyancy floating balance or what is known Baltoazinah isostasy, and this accounts for landing belts kinetic increasingly act of gravity, with the increasing accumulation sedimentary, namely, that rate of decline commensurate with the rate of accumulation, and building , the corresponding part of the rock coat, falling under the earth's crust, must يزاح and pushing sideways to cause the advancement of neighboring parts.

This debate may be acceptable a few decades ago, but it is not acceptable at the present time. The Almatafa part supposed to dislodge heavily sediment is more dense than the downside. Therefore can not يزاح rock coat only part equivalent to the weight of the payload. Based on this, can not explain how great the fall in the motor belt fully downloaded sedimentary, it has to be the participation of other mechanical factors. Kinetic Valahzma is part of the lithosphere plates that are subject to decline and implantation in the coat due to the collision between the plates, so it pulls and pulls down factors differ from the balance of buoyancy. For example, parts of the earth's crust is between ocean trenches, island arcs in East Asian model of the outer part of the belt motor. And accounts for landing this part in the mechanism that causes decline in the earth's crust in the ocean trenches. Except that the expansion in the present causal on the inner part of sign in trouble. Valrv continental east of North America is probably an example of the inner part of the belt motor, it develops, away from the ocean trenches and arcs islands, the situation of the balance of buoyancy with coat lining him, and landing must be the product of other processes, Valrfov continental broad-covered deposits thick evolve At present on the edges of continental plates spaced, and to explain the reasons for landing must reflect on the following assumed geological events that lead to the open ocean.

While climbing stream hot from rock coat to the bottom crust continental, it leads to Tqubbha and Triqgaha heating and stretching, and ends tensile and laminating in part vaulted to cracks Pfwalq normal and falling parts along these faults (Figure 4: A and B), and accumulate in the valleys descending from many deposits resulting from erosion the blocks Alvagayh Mountains on its sides. However relay these events continental crust is broken into two parts apart, between them knew ridge to a new community, and takes this expansion of ocean volcanic eruptions generated ocean crust caused by partial melting in the hot rock coat free from pressure. Thus develops the inner part of the traction motor and belt laminating and downs along the normal faults on both sides of the plates Alaqaritin Almtbaeidtin (Figure 4 - b). With the continued expansion of cans the Almtoldtin Ocean on both sides of the custom and Tsadmanma with plates Alaqaritin Almtbaeidtin landing ocean crust below them and Tngrz in coat (Figure 5 - a).

Advancement systems mountains

Characterized margins collision lithosphere many types of activities, including two types are of particular importance in the advancement of the mountains; types first thermal activity resulting from implantation ocean crust inside the coat and the high temperature and the occurrence of

 Partial fusion generator for leisurely (Almagma) that pushes on the surface volcanic activities. The second type is a mechanical activity to decline ocean crust, and Ingrazha lead to deeper deposits concave geological, Andgatha, distorted Balti and reverse faults and impossibility, which gradually leads to advancement in the form of mountain systems. And to return to the current development of the oceans, the Atlantic is still in the process of expansion, and thus increases the depth of burial of sediment accumulated in geological Mqarath along its continental borders. We have started the development of this Almqarat along the eastern shores of North America 200 million years ago, but its development along the eastern shores of the South أمريكة was too late, because the openness of the Atlantic Ocean was gradually progresses from north to south. Since landing ocean crust under this Almqarat pull Sediments down as pushed toward the continental margin and makes them vulnerable to distortion, the deeper parts of these deposits are gradually impossibility, and give the types of rocks Alhestah and Algnaessah (Figure 5 - b). With increasing heating rocks continental deep gets the melting partially generated from leisurely (Magma) Riulietah (similar in composition granite) ascend slowly upwards due to viscosity high, not that soon harden into rocks that ravaged the body Mdsusat Batholat huge (Figure 5 - h ),

Great Valichohat and impossibility and the maximum and the advancement of fusion, are that make up the core of the mountain system that corresponds with the deeper geological concave parts (Figure 5 - d and 5 - e). The sedimentary cover on the shelf Continental Vindguet and cornered between the mass of the continent and the deep rock mass awakening involves distorted and rises also, to be the marginal area of ​​new mountain system (Figure 5 - e). In many parts of the world there are parts of the lithosphere plates under conflicting sheets with, and there are systems in the process of promoting mountain, including the Andes in western South.

Vsfihh Ocean Almngrzh is Nazca Nazca plate and continental plate colliding with are South أمريكة, ocean trench above the trench scope Alangraz is Peru, Chile, and the rising mountain system is the Andes dotted with volcanic activity. It is believed that this volcanic activity occurring constantly on the continental side of the collision are playing a key role in the evolution of this mountain system. The Himalayas and the Alps, one of the most famous mountain systems in the world, coming-Vtaatcef very steep terrain and towering peaks and located within the continents. The inception began stages since 200 million years, and back advancement to the collision sheets continental فجبال Himalayan rose from the collision plate Indian subcontinent with a mass Tibet Asian, as I got up the Alps plate African continent with plate European, and led to the closure perimeter Altaths old.

The Appalachian that lived in fulfilling mountains are currently situated in the west of Europeanization, believed that evolution was in the concave geologist follow ocean-Atlantic older than the current few hundred million years, when moved plate European continent to collide with North America, and has led this collision to the advancement system mountain in Albaanjieh continent Pangaea, and then broke the Appalachian Mountains west of Europeanization, while broken this ancient continent and diverged parts. It is also believed that the ancient mountain systems located within the Asian continent, Kjebal Urals dating sedimentary formations to Albalyozoa times, has risen from continental collisions, those that may be collected parts of the continent (Albaanjieh).

And give feedback ancient continental shields indications contain a bygone mountain systems, much older than Albalyozoa, so scientists believe that the lithosphere plates movements were taking place since ancient geologic time, resulting in a fusion of continental blocks and split multiple times.

Finally it can be said, without confirmation, that these movements follow successive stages of history, ending each verbal new Hmlanah cells inside the coat, which, he believes, defended President to break the lithosphere and platelet move its parts

The usage of marble in the public life

The usage of marble in the public life

Marble named compressed type of metamorphic rocks consisting of limestone, which gets a high degree of crystallization at high temperatures and pressures. The main component of marble is calcium carbonate content exceeds 90%. And other components, which are impurities, are what give a variety colors of marble and determine their physical properties. And after the process of polishing up marble into a high level of abrasive natural means without wax or chemical ingredients. And marble are mainly used in construction, decoration and sculpture. Often it is transparent, of different colors, from among the most frequently encountered are: white and brown and red and green and black and gray, blue and yellow, and can show color uniform, veined (streaked), PET (lines) and formations different or mixtures thereof, and more.

Within this type of stone types in Extremadura

White marble Alekonnera

Re-crystallized limestone from age Kimbera and grains minutes. Good quarry. Blocks of medium to large

Marble Oswad Penta

Types of igneous rocks

Types of igneous rocks

Generally known rock as a solid composed of natural mineral pool of more than metal and in conditions of limited consists of a metal one. It is called in this case that a single rock metal Monomineralic Rock rocks differ among themselves greatly and this difference depends on several factors including:

1 - the mineral content of the rock Mineral Content.

2 - How to nurture the rock Mode of origin.

3 - How presence Mode of occurrence.

The igneous rocks is an asset that I miss him the rest of the rock types (sedimentary mutant) So sometimes called rock initial Primary rocks as it first emerged from the rocks as a result of hardened material rocky molten lying at a depth unknown exactly in the ground, known as magma or Almajma Magma because of gradual and continuous cooling has sometimes happens that this magma rises in poor areas of the earth's crust come out in the form of lava or for his father Lava as seen in volcanic lava rapid decrease in temperature consisting volcanic rocks wounds.

That was glancing at how the emergence of igneous rocks in general is that the closer look to those how are not so easily as the physical conditions and chemical, known shortcut circumstances Alvezyukimaúah Physico - chemical conditions of Zir is the deciding factor and basic how the emergence of igneous rocks. In the sense that different types of rocks due to the chemical diversity of Zir also due to the depth at which originated and created by it.

Foundations igneous rocks rating:

There is no specific classification has the consensus of scientists igneous rocks, but there are more of the grounds of classification and those foundations can be summarized as follows:

(1) Type of Chemical:

Chemical analysis proved igneous that mostly consists of silicate minerals and this has taken the proportion of silica in the beginning as the basis for the classification of igneous rocks into four groups:

A - Acidic acidic rocks and the percentage of silica to more than 66% of the most famous examples of this type granite rocks Granite and Petrochemistry Granodiorite.

B - intermediate igneous rocks Intermediate The proportion of silica from 66 52% Among the most famous examples of this type rocks Alsaanat Syenite diorite Diorite.

C alkaline igneous rocks Basic and proportion of silica from 52 40% Among the most famous examples of this type Gabbro gabbro and basalt Basalt.

D igneous rocks above the basal Ultrabasic The percentage of silica to less than 40% of the most famous examples of this type rocks Aldunate Dunite Peridotite Peridotite.

It is worth mentioning that these percentages may change increases or decreases in some authors not only this, but there are authors who Ihsron igneous rocks in the three groups are igneous rocks acidic medium and base which followed turn differences in the proportion of silica in each group.

Scientists distinguished between two types of igneous rocks by origination site to igneous rocks underground and surface igneous rocks.

A subterranean igneous rocks and sometimes known rocks Alblutunip Plutonic rocks:

It rocks that formed at great depths in the ground and going sclerosis as a result of cooling the slow and constant under high pressure with the presence of volatile substances Volatiles, allowing for the growth of crystals minerals consisting of rock fiery recharges, which is reflected thus on the fabric of the rock itself becomes a texture coarse Goarse - grained mineral content can be discerned with the naked eye, such as granite and diorite rocks and gabbro, all of igneous groundwater, which is characterized coarse Pencejeha.

This consists of the quality of the igneous rocks as a result of hardening of lava (lava) Lava tides craters at the surface in conditions unlike circumstances constituting the rocks underground just as they are cooling rapidly, to Aath opportunity for the growth of crystals metal constituents of the rock becomes fabric in this case accurate graininess Fine - grained and perhaps does not consist of crystals at all if the sudden cooling becomes fabric in this case glass Glassy.

C igneous rocks interlaced Intrusive rocks:

Despite the presence of two types of ex-igneous rocks, some may Miz somewhat III; are igneous rocks interlaced It does not consist at great depths like plutonic rocks and consists also on the surface like volcanic rocks and was composed with each other and therefore sometimes known rocks firearms subsurface Hypabyssal rocks

It is natural in this case to be the average of any fabric that is not coarse fabric or flour, but it is the fabric of the average grain Medium - grained. These include the quality of the rock, new rock (incisors) Dykes, dams Sills etc. ... Representing a place almost compromise between igneous rocks and igneous rocks groundwater surface 0 and therefore the fabric reflects, in fact, the rate of cooling, rapid Valtbrid produces about thorough granulation tissue also produces slow cooling and large-scale homogeneous granules, a coarse granulation tissue.

However, it may Issadvina sometimes rock with texture uneven graininess ie حبيباته heterogeneous in size where it appears in the rock granules large in ground minutes graininess and called on such a fabric, fabric Alborvery Porphyritic texture and because tissue largely reflects the emergence of rock, this fabric is composed in many different ways and the most important of these ways is the change in circumstances the physical and chemical that controls the growth of crystals, Valblorat phenomenon Phenocrysts arise in depths where high pressure and cooling rate slow and regular and when moving magma the magnitude of the crystals phenomenon to a higher level within the earth's crust or even go out to surface it happens imbalance in the rate of cooling as it becomes faster arise in this case micro-sized crystals and this consists tissue Alibovary.

Description of the most important igneous rocks: -

1 Granite Granite:

Granite is one of the most famous rock and widespread and consists of quartz in the range of 20 40%, feldspar where potassium feldspar is greater than 2/3 total feldspar as a whole and also mica. One of the igneous rocks acidic groundwater coarse grain may be average or sometimes grain flour.

And Alrajulaat Rhyolite is the volcanic equivalent of granite and there in the form of lava textured glass or hidden shape and there are three other names are the types of granite equivalents differ among themselves in a fabric Alaobsidian Obsedian Alapthuston Petchstone and Albeoms (pumice) Pumice.

Valaobsidian a normal glass is often black in color and features a Bmaxrh clear turbinal 0 The Alapthuston contains a lower proportion of glass and there may be a phenomenon while crystals characterized Albeoms (pumice) light weight resulting from the large number of pores.

2 Petrochemistry Granodiorite:

Rock Nary underground acidic coarse grained It is also one of the most rock prevalent and represents this rock situation moderation between granite and diorite and where less than quartz for representing in granite while increases Albulajiokles to more than two-thirds of total feldspar not exceed feldspar potassium one third of total feldspar and hornblende and represents the equivalent Volcanic Jeranodiorit rock Aldasat Dacite.

3 Abajmati Pegmatite:

Although rocks Abajmati present accompanied by all plutonic rocks almost but they always accompany granite and Petrochemistry 0 which rocks were too rough so that there are the largest and most beautiful crystals inside veins Abajmati due to the low degree of viscosity magma and concentration components, which crystallized from metals Abajmati 0 and mineral content of Radioactive comparable to the same content with granite, much Mathtoy veins Abajmati crystals Alberal Beryl and Tourmaline Tourmaline and zircon Zircon and other minerals of economic value.

4 Alsaanat Syenite:

Bullet Jovi rock average with coarse granulation tissue which often resembles granite rock in appearance and consists mainly of potassium feldspar (Erthokles) In addition to all of hornblende and Albiotit 0 and volcanic equivalent for , is Alterakit rock Trachyte.

5 diorite Diorite:

Nary underground rock average consists of two main pillars Albulajiokles metals and hornblende and volcanic equivalent of Diorit is rock Andesite.

6 gabbro Gabbro:

Nary underground rock base consists of two main pillars Albulajiokles metals, and pyroxene. And volcanic equivalent of Gabro is basalt Basalt is of the most famous volcanic rocks and used in paving roads.

7 Peridotite Peridotite:

Nary underground rock above the base consists mainly of metal olefins as well as some minerals ultramafic like Alawjat and hornblende. That was the most important vocabulary igneous rocks and notes that we have disregarded mentioned metals Additional Accessory minerals which metals is not free of rock from the rocks for two reasons first: it is one of the few and so small not exceed approximately 2% and the second reason: it does not affect the properties of the rock itself, or even rename it.

Forms of igneous rocks Forms of Igneous Rocks:

How the magma solidifies do not allow for igneous resulting from this sclerosis take regular forms, but it can put those shapes in the following groups:

(A) groundwater blocs Massive plutons: This group includes both:

1 Batulec Batholith:

It is the largest blocks of igneous rocks and most extensive and often consist of granite rocks and Petrochemistry which is at the root of the hearts and the huge mountain ranges 0

2 Stoke: Stock

A small block for Albatulec size no larger than 100 square kilometers and are usually such forms parts of Albatholat and when erosion affect the surrounding rock rise to steep called objects. Bosses

(B) objects tablet Sheet Intrusions: It consists of Mtdakhalat Intrusions wounds on body panels differ in name by developed and include:

1 Jeddah conclusive Dyke:

Sometimes known Balqata for the shortcut, which is a nested Nary Vertical or with a marked tendency when it overlaps.

2 parallel Jeddah Sill:

And sometimes known as the dam corresponding parallel or have called for the name of the dam and the shortcut is created when magma finds a path parallel to the rock layers horizontal component antibodies, and overall the new conclusive whether or parallel thickness ranges from several centimeters to several kilometers.

1 to Akulec Lacolith:

It is a Mtdakhalat wounds resembling dams Sills is that the high pressure of the class Zir on the surface causes the curvature of the layers above the fiery overlap while the lower layers remain intact in the horizontal position diameters ranging thickness Allakulec of a few hundred meters to several kilometers.

2 Opulec Loplith:

It just Allakulec opposite as it happens curvature down any lower surface concave like Billy

Everything about the granite

Everything about the granite

Granite rock Blutuna composed primarily of quartz, feldspar and mica usually also. Is the most abundant rock in the continental crust. Granite freeze happens slowly and very high pressure, with high silica content of magma from the merger in the rocks which form the continents, and under the mantle temperature at the bottom of this.

As this sediment contains less magnesium than of continental crust has the lowest specific weight, and thus rising through the crust in the distinctive structures inverted drop Khaybar, before reaching the surface. And to form granite necessary to consolidate slowly under high pressure. Feldspar size is an indicator of the rate of multiple sclerosis, and if a large feldspar lower rate. These structures appear on the surface due to erosion and called Batholat. Due to the high hardness, it is often at the top of the mountains, which has its own form close to typical.

There are 8 types of black granite:

Oswad Pattaya

Granite of medium-grain extract of Pluto from Valencia del Vientoso. Quarry good and reserves medium. All types of applications and finishes.

Oswad Extremadura

Granite of flour and beans dark, extracted from Pluto of Burgelos. Quarry and good reserves. All types of applications and finishes

Granite extract of ropes Quintaya de la Serena. All types of applications. Good assets. Quarry moderate

Oswad flour

Granite grain flour extract of Pluto of Barcaruta. Good access. Good. All types of applications and finishes. Quarry good and substantial reserves

Oswad Grapisa

Granite grain flour extract of Batholat middle of Extremadura. Good quarry. All types of applications and finishes

Oswad Ochavo

Granite grain flour extract of Batholat of Burgelos. Average quarry. All types of applications and finishes

Oswad special Ochavo

Granite Oswad of grain flour, extracted from Batholat Valencia Dell Fantweo and from Batholat of Burgelos. Average quarry. All types of applications and finishes

Oswad Villa

Granite Oswad of grains of volcanic rock flour. Average quarry. All types of applications and finishes